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Ancient Stagira: Getting to know the birthplace of Aristotle

Hundreds of thousands of tourists, Greeks and foreigners, visit Halkidiki every year, blessed by the grace of nature. Too many of them pass under the tower that dominates the peninsula of Olympiada. But how many know what the walls hide behind them? That among the purines, are the remains of the Ancient Stagira and -perhaps- the tomb of the legendary philosopher Aristotle?

We have the great privilege of getting to know the place, step by step, with the excavator of the Ancient Stagira, the Archaeologist Kostas Sismanidis. It is an itinerary that, apart from our contact with the architecture of the ancients, gives us a wonderful tour of the wonderful natural environment of this place.

Text: Θεόφιλος Μπασγιουράκης
Photos: Άννα Καλαϊτζή
Ancient Stagira: Getting to know the birthplace of Aristotle
Categories: Monuments
Destinations: MACEDONIA, Chalkidiki

-What you saw from the road a few decades ago was the “Byzantine Crossing”, says the archaeologist Kostas Sismanidis.

-And where were the walls of the classical fortification?

-Disappeared under dirt and purines. And no one suspected, that in this small peninsula of Olympiada, was hidden the Ancient Stagira, the legendary birthplace of the great Aristotle…

 

We used to go back and forth to the coastline of Olympiada many years ago. Yet, through the car windows, what could I catch of the ridge of the peninsula? Only a humble little wall, half lost in the purples and the oblivion of centuries. Until the moment I reopened “MONUMENT AND ENVIRONMENT”, the excellent scholarly publication on architecture and the environment. In issue 5 of 1998-9, I discovered an article with a wealth of information about the archaeological site of my well-known peninsula and proposals from a group of scientists – including Dr. Archaeologist Kostas Sismanidis – for the restoration and promotion of this important archaeological site of northern Greece.

The article included a wealth of photographs and architectural drawings of the existing – as of 1998 – condition of the site, as well as the proposals for its restoration. Two days later, I set out with Anna, Athena – and issue 5 in my hand – to “feel” the site of the ancient Stagira, to find out “first hand” which of the proposals of the team of scientists were adopted by the official state. The images we saw far exceeded our most optimistic predictions. But we were even more fascinated on our next visit, when we were guided in an authentic way by Kostas Sismanidis. The archaeologist who, since September 1990, and for about a decade, had the general supervision of the excavations in Aristotle’s birthplace.

 

A LOOK AT THE HISTORICAL PAST

The ancient Stagira are located at a distance of about 500 meters east of the current, seaside settlement of Olympiada. (1) The ancient city occupied the small, steep peninsula, which the locals call “Liotopi“. The peninsula consists of two hills: the southern one, with a maximum altitude of 66 metres, and the lower northern one, which is no more than 50 metres high and ends on steep coasts. The two hills are separated by a low neck.

The beginning of the historical route of the Stagira is found around 655 BC. It is then that the city is founded on the northern hill and inhabited by Ionian colonists from Andros. We are in the Archaic period and that is when the first fortifications of the city are built. Later, in the Early Classical Period, the settlement is expanded on the southern hill as well. The perimeter fortification of Stagira was completed at that time. During these years, and until the Persian Wars, the city experienced its greatest prosperity. This is evidenced both by the various findings of the excavations and by the city’s coins. These are the famous silver tetradrachms of the mid-6th century BC, considered among the finest and rarest in the ancient world. Their main face bears the image of a boar, which was the symbol of the city and appears on all the coins. The name ‘Capros‘ was given to the opposite, overgrown island, as well as to the port of Stagira.

After the Persian wars, the city’s tranquillity is disturbed and adventures begin. Initially the city participates in the First Athenian Alliance, while during the Peloponnesian War it defects to the Spartans. Later, the Stagiorites participate in the “Common of Chalkidia”, the Federation of the cities of Halkidiki with Olynthos as its capital. 349 BC marked the beginning of the decline. Stagira is besieged and, despite their brave resistance, is occupied by Philip II, King of Macedonia, who completely destroys the city and partially destroys the fortifications.

-Here Stagira claims an exclusivity rather unprecedented in world history, explains Kostas Sismanidis. It is the only city in all times, where the founder and destroyer of the city emerges, after a few years, as its new founder. This – theoretically contradictory – decision was adopted by Philip, to honour the famous Aristotle of Stagiriti, who had been hired as a teacher for his son Alexander.

In the Late Classical Period the northern hill was refortified and the rest of the fortifications were repaired. But the city had already begun to decline and never regained its former glory.

Later, during the Late Hellenistic Period, Stagira became deserted. This is evident both from the testimonies of the geographer Strabo and from the excavation evidence at the site. Finally, during the Byzantine period, a castle was founded on the top of the North Hill and a wall was constructed to the north of the neck of the two hills. In summary, therefore, the following fortifications have been identified and discovered to date:

-The Archaic, which dates back to the foundation of the city, around 655 BC.

-The Early Classical, circa 480 BC.

-The Late Classical period, during the reign of Philip II.

-The Medieval, of the 10ου – 11ου century AD.

ο-As you can see, Kostas adds with a smile, ancient Stagira was a city with “many walls” but “little luck”, since its total life lasted for 6 centuries, until the 1,100th century BC (2).

 

FROM THE OLYMPIAD TO THE STAGIRA

In the early morning hours we arrive in Olympiada. As a route from Thessaloniki we have chosen the Old National Road of Thessaloniki-Kavala, which after Lake Volvi crosses the famous plane-covered valley of Redina with the River Rychio, – the “Macedonian Tempi” as they are called. Then we head right to the seaside settlement of Stavros. A few kilometres later we see the islet of Capros off the coast of Olympiada.

The village square is already bustling with activity. A fisherman is spreading his fresh fish from the waters of Strimonikos. However, at this early morning hour, the chill is still noticeable. In Bambi‘s tavern, the elderly patrons are gathered around the fireplace. A stone-built fireplace, filled to the top with large mesas, stacked crosswise.

As we enter the shop, everyone’s heads turn to see the newcomers. At the sight of Kostas, smiles abound, everyone recognizes the man who has dedicated 10 years of his life to reveal – sometimes under adverse conditions – the hidden and forgotten glory of their land. In an excavation that is certainly considered his life’s work.

George Askitakis, permanent guardian of the archaeological site of Stagira, comes to our table. It is nice to start the day in this friendly and beautiful place, just an hour away from the crowded Thessaloniki. And even with the prospect of wandering around the birthplace of Aristotle, with the man who brought it to light.

We cross Olympiada and in 3 minutes we arrive by car outside the archaeological site. We ascend slightly for a few tens of meters and we are just outside the fortification of the southern hill of the city. An information sign with a detailed topographical diagram informs us about the most important points of the ancient Stagira. In front of us, at the top of the hill, stands the large circular tower of the early classical fortification.

-Why did the excavations in the ancient city start only in 1990?We ask Kostas.

-perhaps because few traces were visible until then in the dense forest vegetation. Perhaps again, because there are truly countless sites of historical and archaeological interest in the country that have not yet come to light. Let us not forget, moreover, the enormous costs involved in any excavation.

-What then was the course of the excavations?

-Before the systematic excavations in ancient Stagira began, only the traces of the medieval fortification on the northern hill were visible. And it is of course to the credit of the community authorities of Olympiada, who for years struggled to convince the Archaeological Service to start excavations in the birthplace of Aristotle.

The first excavation effort, a few days, was made in 1968 by the then Director of the Thessaloniki Museum Fotis Petsas. This was preceded by the discovery in the creek of “Liotopio” by a private diver of a semi-working statue of a kouros, which, together with other findings, is now exhibited in the Archaeological Museum of Polygyros.(3) Petsas then conducted investigations in two places, outside the boundaries of the walled city. He uncovered retaining walls of the classical period above the beautiful creek of Sykia and a circular tower at the site of “Vina”. And while one would have expected that these first findings would mark the beginning of more systematic research, over 20 years passed with a complete absence of any activity. Finally, in September 1990, we started a few exploratory cuts with a crew. So encouraging were the indications of those investigations that the excavations began, and for 10 years thereafter.

 

ON THE SOUTHERN SLOPE OF THE PENINSULA

We start our tour from the southern hill, the most prominent point of the city. In front of us stands the imposing circular tower with a panoramic view to the right of the creeks and wooded slopes. In its continuation, to the northwest, the wall begins. Its height exceeds 2 metres. However, what mainly impresses us is the “Egyptian” building system.(4) It is a stone puzzle of unique beauty and symmetry, which surprises us with the perfection of its construction.

-And, of course, it has the additional advantage that the ancient craftsmen did not leave any stone unused, Kostas adds.

We look and look again at the masonry, but in vain. Our own eyes are unable to discover the finer details.

-Watch out for the large grey-green slabs, which regularly protrude from the rest of the masonry by a few centimetres. This is theoretically against safety rules, since these protrusions could aid the climbing of potential attacking enemies. Here, however, it seems that the builders somehow adopted Aristotle’s much later view, of course, that “the walls of a city, in addition to the security they provide, must also be its ornament”.

But there is another characteristic and very obvious detail in the masonry of the fortification. It is a separating joint, similar to a thick cord, which is embedded as a horizontal irregular line between the stones. With little observation, we realise that this joint separates the masonry into two parts: the old part, which survives at a certain height from the ground, and the newer part, which has been built over the “dividing scotia” (5), as Kostas calls the cord and is a faithful restoration of the wall with the ancient building material found on site.

-Here you can appreciate the quality of the restoration of the ancient stagi. The result almost exceeded the expectations of our team’s proposals. This is largely due to the deserving stones of the Lyritzis family from Taxiarchis, Halkidiki.

From a small gate, called “dome” by Kostas, we enter the Acropolis and the city. In front of us is a circular built reservoir for rainwater collection, 4 meters deep. A little further on, above the ground, a small, rectangular structure with slabs sticking out of the ground, resembling a fufu, attracts our attention. -You are not mistaken, our archaeologist tells us.

The findings suggest that it was an ancient “barbecue”. The water supply pipeline of ancient Stagira also passed under the Tower. The water came through clay pipes from the opposite mountain. Parts of the pipeline have been found up to 3 km from here, in the promontory of the Stratoniko mountain.

A few dozen metres to the NE we reach a square outpost, at the highest point of the citadel. The view from here is imposing. We look down at the northern hill of the peninsula with the fortifications of the archaic period and out to sea, the verdant little island of Capros. Much further back rises Mount Paggaio with its lightly snow-covered peaks, while to the right Thassos can be seen in the distance.

-We are in the citadel that Philip destroyed in 349 BC, Kostas says.

We wander for a while in this part of the city, admiring the fortified architecture that dates back to around 500 BC. The wall, which is more than 2 metres thick, is built with various building systems, such as the “Egyptian“, “polygonal“, “irregular” and “lasbian“, using limestone, marble and limestone as raw material.

With the “ascent ladder” we climb to the upper surface of the wall, wonderfully assembled by the technicians of the Archaeological Service. One is truly delighted to see such quality restoration and maintenance at every step.

 

IN THE ANCIENT MARKET

On the low neck connecting the two hills of the peninsula we visit the site of the ancient Agora, the smoothest and most unique flat area of the ancient city.

-Imagine that until 1993 there was a hillside here overgrown with holly, heather, heather and heather trees. The vegetation was impenetrable, it looked like a jungle. Underneath, however, it hid great public buildings, the most important being the Classical Period Lodge, Kostas explains. It is the rectangular and elongated building with dimensions of 26×6 meters, built according to the “pseudo-isodome system”, mainly with marble cornerstones. This is where the Stagiorites gathered for their public debates. Access to the interior of the stoa was by means of a monumental staircase at the front of the stoa. We have to imagine it open, with columns in a row. Finally, to support the gable roof there was an internal colonnade of eight columns, of which only the marble bases have been preserved.

We could mention a lot about the various architectural relics of the Archaic and Classical times, which were discovered in the area of the Agora, such as: an archaic rectangular altar, a smaller Classical altar, some shops and warehouses of Classical times, where many circular rocks were found, carved into the rock, which held huge jars for the storage of mainly liquid and solid products.

 

TOUR OF THE NORTHERN HILL

To get to the highest point of the northern hill, which is no more than 50 metres above sea level, we have two options: the shortest is an uphill path of a few dozen metres immediately to the right of the lodge. We prefer the peripheral path that circles the hill from east to north. Already below the Agora we descend an ancient cobblestone path, which continues in the form of a narrow path and ends in a minute at the beautiful cove of the “Liotopio”.

We climb around the path to “Liotopi”, a gentle slope with large olive trees, well-branched this season. Here we find the “Byzantine wall“, built between the 10thου and 11thου century AD, which was the fortification of the northern hill from sea to sea. Its total length is about 250 metres, its thickness is close to 1 metre, and its maximum height is 3.50 metres. The wall is built irregularly, with small stones and lime mortar as a binder.

It is worth mentioning that a part of the first fortification of the city, dating back to the Archaic period, came to light here. The Byzantine wall is built on this very wall, using the Archaic wall as a foundation.

Immediately after the crossing we find two blocks with the remains of several ancient houses. A little lower down, we continue along the beautiful path, which runs along the coast, between centuries-old olive trees. The room of a solitary house is preserved here, as well as a well-preserved part of the wing.

-Wherever we dig in this hill, under the bushes or the olive trees, we will find ancient buildings, Kostas says. Let us not forget that the town was large for its time, with a population of about 4,000.

The path takes us to the NE corner of the town, just above the rocky coast. Here, remains of the eastern wall, built according to the pseudo-isodic system, and the well-built walls of a house, attached to the inside of the wall, are preserved. An old wild olive tree has curved terribly over the years, its trunk – due to the strong north winds – is almost parallel to the ground.

A picturesque rocky cove is formed in the northern adjacent part of the coast. Behind it is the islet of Capros and the Paggaio. We are heading inland. Here we find a small sanctuary of the 6thου century BC dedicated to a female deity. It is located at the extreme part of the North Hill, just above the steep cliff. It consists of two quadrangular spaces, to the right and left of a cobbled corridor. Characteristic of the sacredness of the site is the fact that the Late Classical wall, which was built about two centuries later, and which we shall discuss below, respected the Sanctuary and included it, adjusting its course accordingly. Most important is the larger area of the Sanctuary, where there is a primitive altar and a square sacrificial altar. From this area comes a number of movable finds, including many clay figurines, female busts and a clay matrix depicting two men entwined for a ram.

Another archaic circular building of the same period is located a short distance SE of the sanctuary. About half of its perimeter is preserved at a small height, built with marble and limestone. The diameter is 11 metres and, as is inferred both from its shape and size, and from the finds, it was probably a funerary monument dedicated to Demeter.

The entire area, a few meters above the rocky coast, exudes an unparalleled beauty. From this area and immediately above the rocky cliff, another wall, 2 metres thick, which has been excavated so far over a length of 140 metres, zigzags upwards towards the top of the hill (to include the earliest archaic sanctuaries). The excavation proved that it is the wall built by Philip II, after he himself had destroyed the city in 349 BC. Inside this wall we can see many walls of ruined houses, workshops and warehouses, as well as a circular well, wonderfully carved in rock, 4 metres deep.

We follow the same path to the top of the hill, through dense vegetation. Two minutes later we reach the top of the northern hill. The site here is flat with an area approaching an acre. During the middle Byzantine times a military fortress was established. For its construction, older building material of ancient Stagira and curasan had been used. This fortress was protected by a 1 metre thick enclosure, which has been preserved at a considerable height and was reinforced by rectangular and semi-circular towers. Inside the enclosure, the ruins of a four-sided Byzantine tower are clearly visible, on which the concrete pillar of the Geographical Service of the Army (G.Y.S.) was erected in a completely incongruous – and illegal – manner.

Immediately east of it, a square Byzantine Kinterna is preserved in good condition, a water tank with sides about 5 meters long, sealed with a coating of hydraulic mortar. Under the plaster we can see granite cornerstones with elaborate carving, which, as in all Byzantine buildings, come from ancient building material.

Another very impressive building on the western slope of the hilltop, below the Byzantine precinct, is the retaining wall (6), which survives at a considerable height. The building material of the analimma comes from wonderfully carved granite stones of large dimensions, built according to the pseudo-isostructural system (7).

ου-It is easy to understand, Kostas explains, that the granite stones of Kynsternas that we saw above and other similar ones that are embedded in all the Byzantine buildings, come from this very wall, which was nothing more than the western far side of a large archaic temple of the 6th century BC. Moreover, with the help of both the literary sources that give us Aristotle’s will and the movable finds that we had during the excavation, we are left in no doubt that this is the temple that was dedicated to “Zeus the Saviour” and “Athena Soter“.

Going downhill a few dozen meters towards the neck between the two hills, we reach a large square tower, which belongs to the Byzantine wall we already know.

-We said above that this wall is founded exactly on the earliest wall of the city, that is, the archaic one. At this point, therefore, immediately to the east of the square tower, we can see a section of the archaic wall, about 15 metres long, which has been uncovered. The important thing, however, is that in this section, one of the main (if not the main) gates of the oldest city of Stagira came to light, in front of which the marble lintel was found fallen and broken. Its total length must have been around 2.50 metres, and the most important thing is that it depicts in relief a wild boar on the left, facing a lion on the right. Only the two extreme parts of this representation, which also decorates the tetradrachms of the Stagira, have been found. The find is important in many ways because it contains a fine example of the archaic sculptural style, and in particular of the boar, the sacred animal and symbol of the city of Stagira. ουIn addition, parts of a rare inscription of the 6th century BC, which is even engraved “bustrophidon”, are preserved in the find.(8) Although indistinguishable, the inscription had a content that is still very relevant today. It contained tax regulations, with the introduction of a fee of five drachmas. With the archaic gate mentioned above, there is probably associated a large square marble monument, (9) which exists under a sheet-iron roof in this area. In the centre of the marble shrine there is now a large rectangular gap, in which there must have been an altar, where those entering the first city of Stagira were sacrificed. Perhaps the tax inscription we saw above is related to this altar.

 

AN UNPRECEDENTED DEVELOPMENT

In order to see the part of the Archaic wall with the gate, the visitor must continue his course outside the Byzantine wall and proceed parallel and around a semicircular arched (horseshoe-shaped) structure. The dimensions of this horseshoe-shaped building, which surrounds the Byzantine tower, are 9×10 metres. The building initially gives the impression of an archaic wall tower.

A closer observation, however, as well as the existence of movable finds, convince us that the building belongs to the early Hellenistic period. The walls are 1.20 m thick and have a maximum height of 1.80 m. Although the majority of the building material is angio stones of excellent workmanship, it is obvious from the way it was built, that the construction was a little sloppy and hasty, which is placed during the times of Alexander the Great. The character of the building is public, as is evident from several sections of roof tiles with the seal NE, which means origin from the royal pottery.

-Here I will risk a view, which may be considered a bit bold, says Kostas. I do not rule out at all, on the contrary, I have every reason to believe that the structure you see was the tomb of Aristotle.

There are some exclamations. Of all the great and important things we have seen and heard so far in our long tour, this statement is truly shocking. As shocking as the personality of the great Macedonian philosopher was.

-You must have good reasons to support such a theory, I say to Kostas.

-Yes, I rely on the ancient testimonies, according to which “(Aristotle) in Chalkidion celebrated, (the Stagiorites) transferred the body and altar erected in the tomb and Aristotle called the place and there the parliament was chanted”.

-Where is this passage written?I ask Kostas.

-From manuscript 257 of the Marcian Library of Venice, dating from around 1300, known as the “Vita Marciana“. ουThe same things, but in greater detail, are mentioned in an Arabic text of the 11th century AD which apparently copies a similar ancient Greek text which had been lost. According to this version, Aristotle was buried in the city by exception and in a tomb above ground, where the rulers of the city came when they had to decide on serious matters.

In relation to this issue it seems, that the literary evidence matches our excavation evidence. According to the above-mentioned sources, when the Stagiorites descended as an official delegation to Chalcis and received the bones of the philosopher and after they had transported them back to their homeland, they buried them, with the exception of the “nomes”, in their city in a place they called “Aristotle”. Next to it was the Bouleuterion, where the rulers of the city met in order to make decisions on matters of concern to them. In this case, what more logical to suppose that this Bouleuterion would be somewhere in the Agora of the city, and what more logical to associate the Lodge with that which was only a few dozen yards from the horseshoe-shaped edifice we have described.

 

A VERY RELAXING WALK

We gaze at the landscape all around us: the sandy and rocky beaches, the verdant islets, the islet of Capros and the distant Paggaio, the walls of the ancient city and the towers. Wherever we find ourselves, the small “two-cornered” peninsula of Olympiada exudes a rare charm. Not only for archaeologists, who can wander for hours among the monuments of the past. But also for hikers and nature lovers, who will discover here amazing paths, perfectly laid out in densely wooded hillsides. Paths that lead quickly, easily and safely to the most interesting and most prominent parts of the archaeological site of Stagira.

We discover such a path to the west and below the neck of the Agora, near the beautiful sandy beach of Sykia. The path is beautiful, with protective wooden railings and, where necessary, log steps. It is a maximum pleasure to walk such a path. Which in less than a quarter of an hour – at a leisurely pace – completes the perimeter of the North Hill coastline to the stunning site with the Late Classical wall, the remains of the houses, the carved well, the sanctuaries. In this unique location, just opposite the Capros, one can stay for a long time, relax, gaze and think that in this place once, in the distant past, the great Aristotle lived, walked and contemplated.

A SHORT TRIP TO THE CAPE

– If it were three months later, we could enjoy the clear waters on the sandy beaches of Kapros, Kostas says. But never mind, let’s limit ourselves to a simple walk around the island today.

In the small harbour of Olympiada, with the fishing boats and boats, SAN NIKOLAS, a beautiful wooden boat, is waiting for us. Our captain, Marios Kambouris, is an old acquaintance of Kostas, when, as a very young man, he too was part of the excavation crew. We set sail with calm sea and spring heat. Our little trip doesn’t last long. Within 1.6 miles of the harbor we approach the western coast of the island, which from a distance looks like a cape lying on its back.

Steep rocky coasts and beautiful sandy beaches with gentle seabeds, wild olive trees and grills, small shoals with seagulls and cormorants. Passages shallow and treacherous for those who don’t know them. We turn onto the northern shelf, the “Kazania“, as Marios calls it. We approach a small, iron lighthouse at the SE end of the island. We continue to the steep south coast, overgrown at its top with dense wild olive trees. In less than half an hour the circumnavigation is complete.

– This is Capros, the current Kawkanas, says Kostas. The name of the island is mentioned in Herodotus and Thucydides and was a reference point for the identification of the Ancient Stagira. Today it is uninhabited, but from the ruins in the densely wooded interior we deduce that it was inhabited from the classical to the Middle Byzantine period. The most characteristic ruins are two large water reservoirs and a building of Byzantine times, located at the western end of the island.

OPTIONS

Three visits in one month, many hours of walking around the walls, the towers, the sanctuaries and the paths. However, the Ancient Stagira still fascinates me. For their maximum historical and archaeological importance, for their special topography, their exquisite natural environment, their open horizons, their crystal clear sandy beaches.

We will return to the Olympiad. Alone or with the Greek Tourists Club. Who will have the pleasure of experiencing authentic hours of touring and guiding with Kostas Sismanidis, the excavating archaeologist, who more than anyone else can fascinate his audience in the birthplace of Aristotle.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

– Sismanidis K. “Ancient Stagira, the birthplace of Aristotle”, ed. Ministry of Culture, Athens 2003.

– Vasiliki Kyriakou – Nahla, Irini Venetia Malama, Yannis Giannakis, Kostas Sismanidis “Restoration of the fortification of Ancient Stagira”, journal “MONUMENT AND ENVIRONMENT”, issue 5, 1998-9, UNIVERSITY STUDIO PRESS, Thessaloniki.

THANKS

We would like to thank captain Mario Kampouris for the nice trip to the island of Capros.

We would also like to thank the excavator of the Ancient Stagira, Archaeologist Kostas Sismanidis. Not only for his decisive contribution to the creation of this article, but also because with his long tour, guided tour and important discussions, he made us reflect, dream and feel proud of our ancient past.

USEFUL INFORMATION

The Archaeological site of Ancient Stagira is open to visitors daily from sunrise to sunset (for any information, the telephone number of the archaeological guard George Askitakis is 699 700.4688).

 

CITATIONS IN THE FIELD

(1) The Olympiada was built by refugees who came from St. Kyriaki of Asia Minor in 1923.

(2) On the contrary, the sister city of Acanthus, also a colony of the Andrians, founded in the same year as Stagira, had a continuity of happy life until the Byzantine years, because it had no great historical adventures.

(3) Since 1998, the most important findings of the excavations of Stagira are exhibited there.

(4) The “Egyptian” building system is a combination of large rectangular carved stones and other superimposed, much smaller slabs, filling the gaps between them.

(5) The composition of the “separation scotia” is a mixture of various materials, such as white and black cement, clay soil, theraic earth and ochre.

(6) A retaining wall is a wall constructed on sloping ground to protect against landslides.

(7) A pseudo-structural or pseudo-isostructural building system is a building system when the successive rows of masonry are unequal to each other. On the contrary, when they are level, we have the isodic or isostructural system.

(8) By the term “bustrophidon” we mean the way of writing in ancient Greek inscriptions, in the direction in which the oxen were ploughed, i.e. from left to right in the first line, from right to left in the second line and so on (from the Babiniotis dictionary).

(9) A “marble floor” is a floor paved with small pieces of marble that do not create a specific shape or pattern.

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